Human memory is composed of three interconnected memory stores.
- Sensory memory (SM)
- Working memory (WM)
- Long-term memory (LTM)
Information from our senses is initially stored in sensory memory
(SM) in the same manner that it processed by our
senses (e.g., as images or sounds). Although
information is retained in SM for less than two
seconds, that is long enough for us to interpret it
and to decide which parts of it are important
enough to pay attention to and transfer to working
memory (WM) , where we can continue to process
it. Information in WM is stored primarily in terms of
how it sounds (i.e., acoustically), and only about 7
bits of information (e.g., numbers, letters, or
words) can be held in WM for only about 30
seconds unless we continue to maintain them by
repeating them to ourselves. Forgetting occurs in
WM when we transfer more information from SM
into WM—and therefore exceed our 7-item capacity
—or if we stop repeating the information currently
stored in WM. This repetition process, known as
rehearsal, serves two purposes. First, it allows us
to maintain information in WM as long as we
continue to repeat it to ourselves. Second,
rehearsal enables us to transfer information we
wish to remember more permanently to our third
and final memory store, known as long-term
memory (LTM) . Information in LTM is stored
predominantly in terms of its meaning (i.e.,
semantically), and this memory store is often
compared to a library whose contents are
organized in a number of different meaningful ways
(e.g., by subject matter, by authors' names, in
alphabetical order, etc.). We may not always be
able to retrieve information from LTM, when we
want to—in the same way that a book in a library
may be sometimes hard to find—but once it is
there, it is stored relatively permanently, and we do
not forget it in the same manner that we forget
information that has been stored only in SM or
WM.
(SM) in the same manner that it processed by our
senses (e.g., as images or sounds). Although
information is retained in SM for less than two
seconds, that is long enough for us to interpret it
and to decide which parts of it are important
enough to pay attention to and transfer to working
memory (WM) , where we can continue to process
it. Information in WM is stored primarily in terms of
how it sounds (i.e., acoustically), and only about 7
bits of information (e.g., numbers, letters, or
words) can be held in WM for only about 30
seconds unless we continue to maintain them by
repeating them to ourselves. Forgetting occurs in
WM when we transfer more information from SM
into WM—and therefore exceed our 7-item capacity
—or if we stop repeating the information currently
stored in WM. This repetition process, known as
rehearsal, serves two purposes. First, it allows us
to maintain information in WM as long as we
continue to repeat it to ourselves. Second,
rehearsal enables us to transfer information we
wish to remember more permanently to our third
and final memory store, known as long-term
memory (LTM) . Information in LTM is stored
predominantly in terms of its meaning (i.e.,
semantically), and this memory store is often
compared to a library whose contents are
organized in a number of different meaningful ways
(e.g., by subject matter, by authors' names, in
alphabetical order, etc.). We may not always be
able to retrieve information from LTM, when we
want to—in the same way that a book in a library
may be sometimes hard to find—but once it is
there, it is stored relatively permanently, and we do
not forget it in the same manner that we forget
information that has been stored only in SM or
WM.
1. Which of the following types of memory stores
information for only about 30 seconds?
a. SM b. WM c. LTM d. none of the above
This question tests your ability to recognize that a
specific concept (e.g., WM) is associated with a
single, important characteristic (e.g., it lasts for
only about 30 seconds). This requires you merely
to memorize a term and its definition.
2. Which of the following is true about WM?
a. It can hold only about seven bits of information.
b. Information stored in it is mainly encoded
acoustically.
c. Information stored in it lasts only about 30
second unless it is rehearsed.
d. all of the above
This question measures your ability to learn a set
of characteristics common to a particular concept
(e.g., WM can hold only a certain amount of
information in a certain form for only a certain
period of time). It requires a more thorough
knowledge of a concept than does Question 1, but
is still based primarily on memorization.
3. Which of the following is the correct sequence
through which information passes as it is
processed by the human memory system?
a. SM --> WM --> LTM b. WM --> SM --> LTM c.
SM --> LTM --> WM d. WM --> LTM --> SM
This question requires you to learn a chronological
relationship among a series of variables (e.g., SM,
WM, and LTM).
4. Joan looked up a phone number, closed the
phone book, and repeated the number to herself as
she was dialing the phone. This phone number is
being stored in __________.
a. SM b. WM c. LTM d. none of the above
This question measures your ability to apply
knowledge to a real-life situation and requires a
deeper understanding of the concept that goes
beyond mere memorization of its definition or
characteristics.
5. WM is to LTM, as __________ is to __________.
a. 7, unlimited b. semantic, acoustic c. relatively
permanent, 30 seconds d. all of the above
This question measures the ability to compare and
contrast two concepts (e.g., WM and LTM). This
skill is based on—but goes beyond—the simpler
abilities of memorizing a concept's definition (from
question 1) and its set of characteristics (from
question 2).
6. Which of the following students has given the
best explanation of why Tom has already forgotten
the name of the person to whom he was
introduced only three minutes ago?
a. Chang: "The name was never in Tom's WM."
b. Monique: "The name was lost from Tom's LTM."
c. Fritz: "Tom did not successfully transfer the
name from his LTM to his SM."
d. Juanita: "Tom did not successfully transfer the
name from his WM to his LTM."
This question involves all the cognitive skills
measured by the first five questions, plus it
requires you to evaluate the knowledge you have
acquired so that you can produce a logical
decision based on a thorough understanding of a
relational concept (e.g., factors that affect the
successful transfer of information from WM to LTM)
that can be used to explain an example of complex
human behavior (e.g., forgetting).
How well did you perform on this quiz? If you
performed well, you possess the ability to retain ,
understand, apply , compare, contrast , and evaluate
the information you will encounter in this class.
Now all you need is the motivation to work hard
so you can actualize your academic potential. If
your performance on this quiz was less than
spectacular—and you would like to avoid this type
of performance on your tests in this class—then
you should spend some time analyzing why you
missed the questions that you did. If you are like
most students who take this quiz and perform
below their expectations, you probably answered
the first two or three questions correctly, but then
began to experience difficulty as you attempted to
answer the later questions that required you to
apply, compare, contrast, or evaluate your
knowledge. If this is the case, give careful
consideration to your personal understanding of
what it means "to study" a textbook assignment. If
studying means making sure that your eyes see
every word in a reading assignment and
memorizing the important terms and their
definitions, then I urge you to change your idea of
what it means "to study." To answer the later
questions on this quiz, you must assume an active
approach to studying in which you ask yourself
some of the following questions as you progress
through your reading assignment.
1. Do I really understand this information or have I
just memorized it?
2. Could I apply this information to a "real life"
situation?
3. Could I relate this information to other
information in this assignment?
a. Is it part of some type of sequence?
b. Is it similar to other information and, if so, how
is it similar?
c. Is it different from other information and, if so,
how is it different?
4. Could I use this information to evaluate the
validity (i.e., truthfulness) of a statement?
When you ask yourself these questions as you read an assignment—and read actively to discover the answers—you will be engaging in a method of study that will increase your comprehension of the material you are reading and increase the probability that you will perform well on tests.
Take this exercise and its results seriously. If you find yourself performing more poorly in this class
than you would like, review this exercise again as the class progresses. I have been teaching classes in introductory psychology and study skills for more than a third of a century, and this is the best advice I have found for my students who ask the question, "How can I do better in this class?"
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